INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIFACETED AND MULTILINGUAL STUDIES Website: www.ijmms.in Email: ijmms14@gmail.com

सरांश                                                सुरजीत सिंह वरवाल

rqyukRed lkfgR; vaxzsth ds ^dEiSjsfVo fyVjspj* dk fgUnh vuqokn gSA ;g ,d LorU= fo|k”kk[kk ds :Ik esa fodflr gS rFkk fons”k ds fofHkUu fo”ofo|ky;ks esa blds v/;;u&v/;kiu ds dk;Z dks vktdy fo”ks’k egRo fn;k tk jgk gSA vaxzsth ds dfo ^eSF;w vkuZYM* us lu~ 1848 esa vius ,d i= esa lcls igys ^dEiSjsfVo fyVjspj* in dk iz;ksx fd;k FkkA ¼izk;% rqyukRed lkfgR; dh ifjHkk’kk] v/;;u dh n`f’V ls ^iSfjl rFkk vesjhdh Ldwyksa* dk egRo vf/kd gS½A

            Hkkjr esa lu~ 1907 esa ^jfoUnz ukFk Bkdqj* us fo”o lkfgR; dk mYys[k djrs gq, lkfgR; ds v/;;u esa rqyukRed n`f’V dh vko”;drk ij tksj fn;k FkkA ekuo ds lkaLd`frd bfrgkl dh lgt /kkjk ds vkJ; esa gh ^jfo ckcw* us rqyukRed lkfgR; ds v/;;u ij cy fn;k FkkA blds ,d lky ckn lu~ 1908 esa ^frjUckpde rFkk uyknh;* dh vuqokn dh Hkwfedk esa ^th- ;w- iksi* us rfey Hkk’kk&Hkk’kh fo)kuksa lss ;g vkxzg fd;k fd rfey ds bu xzUFkksa ds okLrfod vkLoknu ds fy, vaxzsth esa fyf[kr /kkfeZd dforkvksa ls ifjfpr gksuk t:jh gS D;ksafd dksbZ Hkh lkfgR; vius vki vyx vfLrRo cukdj fVd ugha ldrkA oLrqr bl “krkCnh ds igys n”kd esa dgh xbZ bl izdkj dh mfDr;ksa ls gh Hkkjrh; rqyukRed lkfgR; dh cqfu;kn rS;kj gqbZ FkhA

rqyukRed lkfgR; ds fo’k; esa ,d Lora= v/;;u dks ekU;rk nsuk vkt Hkh fooknxzLr fo’k; gSA rqyukRed lkfgR; dk Hkh ,d n`f’Vdks.k gS] ,d izfof/k gS vkSj ,d rduhdh gSa rqyukRed lkfgR; dh izfofr;kWa vHkh Hkh iqjh rjg ls fLFkj ugha gks ik;h gSaA blds v/;;u dk vkjEHk ge bfrgkl cks/k ls djrs gSa] fdUrq mldh ifjlekfIr ,d izdkj ds lkoZHkkSEk lkfgR;sfrgkl esa gksrh gSaA

       izk;% rqyukRed lkfgR; dsoy ,d lkfgR; ;k ,d ls vf/kd lkfgR; dk v/;;u ek= ugha gS] vfirq blls Hkh c<+dj cgqr vkxs gS] D;ksafd dksbZ Hkh lkfgR;dkj vius {ks=] ifjos”k ls izHkkfor gksdj gh lkfgR; jpuk djrk gSA pwafd euq’; vf/kdre 10&15 Hkk’kkvksa dk Kkrk gks ldrk gS] blls vf/kd ugha vkSj mls vU; lkfgR; ds tkuus ds fy, rqyukRed lkfgR; ;k vuqokn dk lgkjk ysuk gh iM+sxkA rHkh og vU; lkfgR; dks nksuksa :iksa dks le>dj ewy leL;kvksa dks tku ik;sxk blfy, Hkh rqyukRed lkfgR; ,d fof”k’V dk;Z djrk gSA

                    fo”o esa rqyukRed lkfgR; vkSj Hkkjr

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MULTIFACETED AND MULTILINGUAL STUDIES

Website: 

www.ijmms.in Email: ijmms14@gmail.com

1

                                                          ISSN: 2350-0476

                                                                                            ISSUE-I, VOLUME-I

Hkkjr ,d cgqHkk’kh ns”k gSA ;gk¡ u dsoy 1652 ekr`Hkk’kk,¡ gS] vfirq vusd leqUur lkfgfR;d Hkk’kk,a Hkh gSaA ftl izdkj vusd o’kksZa ds vkilh lEidZ vkSj lkekftd f}Hkkf’kdrk ds dkj.k Hkkjrh; Hkk’kk,a viuh :Ik jpuk ls fHkUu gksrs gq, Hkh viuh vkfFkZd lajpuk esa le:Ik gaS] blh izdkj ;g Hkh dgk tk ldrk gS fd vius tkrh; bfrgkl] lkekftd psruk] lkaLd`frd ewY; ,oa lkfgfR;d laosnuk ds lanHkZ esa Hkkjrh; lkfgR; ,d gSA

^Hkkjrh; lkfgR; vkSj laLd`fr* dh ladYiuk ds ewY; esa Hkkjrh; laLd`fr dh vk/kkjHkwr ,drk vkSj oSf”k’V~; dh igpku dh NViVkgV gSA fdUrq bl ^igpku* ds fy, tks iz;kl gksuk pkfg, Fkk mlds fy, lkfgfR;d v/;;u dk tks rqyukRed vk/kkj feyuk pkfg, Fkk vkSj rqyukREkd lkfgR; ds v/;;u ds tks lanHkZ] iz.kkyh vkSj rduhd dk fodkl gksuk pkfg, Fkk] og fn[kykbZ ugha iM+rkA Hkkjr esa cgqr de fo”ofo|y; gSa tgka ^rqyukRed lkfgR;* dh ladYiuk ,d fo/kk ds :Ik esa gksA

rqyukRed lkfgR; vaxzsth ds ^dEiSjsfVo fyVjspj* dk fgUnh vuqokn gSA ;g ,d LorU= fo|k”kk[kk ds :Ik esa fodflr gS rFkk fons”k ds fofHkUu fo”ofo|ky;ks esa blds v/;;u&v/;kiu ds dk;Z dks vktdy fo”ks’k egRo fn;k tk jgk gSA vaxzsth ds dfo ^eSF;w vkuZYM* us lu~ 1848 esa vius ,d i= esa lcls igys ^dEiSjsfVo fyVjspj* in dk iz;ksx fd;k FkkA ¼izk;% rqyukRed lkfgR; dh ifjHkk’kk] v/;;u dh n`f’V ls ^iSfjl rFkk vesjhdh Ldwyksa* dk egRo vf/kd gS½A

Hkkjr esa lu~ 1907 esa ^jfoUnz ukFk Bkdqj* us fo”o lkfgR; dk mYys[k djrs gq, lkfgR; ds v/;;u esa rqyukRed n`f’V dh vko”;drk ij tksj fn;k FkkA ekuo ds lkaLd`frd bfrgkl dh lgt /kkjk ds vkJ; esa gh ^jfo ckcw* us rqyukRed lkfgR; ds v/;;u ij cy fn;k FkkA blds ,d lky ckn lu~ 1908 esa ^frjUckpde rFkk uyknh;* dh vuqokn dh Hkwfedk esa ^th- ;w- iksi* us rfey Hkk’kk&Hkk’kh fo)kuksa lss ;g vkxzg fd;k fd rfey ds bu xzUFkksa ds okLrfod vkLoknu ds fy, vaxzsth esa fyf[kr /kkfeZd dforkvksa ls ifjfpr gksuk t:jh gS D;ksafd dksbZ Hkh lkfgR; vius vki vyx vfLrRo cukdj fVd ugha ldrkA oLrqr bl “krkCnh ds igys n”kd esa dgh xbZ bl izdkj dh mfDr;ksa ls gh Hkkjrh; rqyukRed lkfgR; dh cqfu;kn rS;kj gqbZ FkhA

rqyukRed lkfgR; ds fo’k; esa ,d Lora= v/;;u dks ekU;rk nsuk vkt Hkh fooknxzLr fo’k; gSA rqyukRed lkfgR; dk Hkh ,d n`f’Vdks.k gS] ,d izfof/k gS vkSj ,d rduhdh gSa rqyukRed lkfgR; dh izfofr;kWa vHkh Hkh iqjh rjg ls fLFkj ugha gks ik;h gSaA blds v/;;u dk vkjEHk ge bfrgkl cks/k ls djrs gSa] fdUrq mldh ifjlekfIr ,d izdkj ds lkoZHkkSEk lkfgR;sfrgkl esa gksrh gSaA

       rqyukRed “kCn Compare dk vuqok gSA Comparative dh O;k[;k “kCndks”k esa bl izdkj gS Compare – To bring to gather or side in order to note points of difference and more especially likeness to note and express the resemblance between¹.

       ^^rqyukRed lkfgR;** ,dd jk’Vª ds lkfgR; dh ifjf/k ds ijs nwljs jk’Vªksa ds lkfgR; ds lkFk rqyukRed v/;;u gSA ;g v/;;u dyk] bfrgkl] lekt foKku] /keZ”kkL= vkfn Kku ds fofHkUu {ks=ksa ds vkilh lEcU/kksa dk Hkh v/;;u gSa**²A

                                                               ¼gsujh ,p-,p-jsekd½

       ^^lkfgfR;d fodkl ds lkekU; fl)kUrksa dk v/;;u fu”p; gh rqyukRed lkfgR; dk egRoiw.kZ vax gS**A                                                         ¼iklusV½

esDlewyj us dgk Fkk& ”All higher knowledge is gained by Comparison and rests on Comparison”³   

^^rqyukRed lkfgR;* lkfgR; ds lexz :Ik dk varjkZ’Vªh; ifjis{; esa v/;;u djrk gSA ftlds ewy esa ;g Hkkouk fufgr jgrh gS fd lkfgfR;d l`tu vkSj vkLoknu dh psruk] tkrh; jktuSfrd ,oa HkkSxksfyd lhekvksa ls ;qDr ,d jl vkSj v[kaM+ gksrh gSA**      jsusosysd

izk;% rqyukRed lkfgR; dks fofHkUu fopkjdksa us vius&vius vuqlkj ifjHkkf’kr djus dk iz;kl fd;k ftuesa jsusosysd] gsujh ,p-,p- jsekd] iklusV] Dykbo Ldkj] Vh-,l- bfy;j] MkW- ukxsUnz] clar ckVi] bUnzukFk pkS/kjh bR;kfn gSa]

izk;% esjh utj esa rqyukRed lkfgR; ds tUe ls ysdj fd”kksj voLFkk dh dM+h dks fdlh Hkh fopkjd us viuh ys[kuh ds }kjk lekt ds led{k ugha j[kkA rqyukRed lkfgR; dh tc ge ckr djrs gaS rks Hkwy tkrs gSa fd ,slh D;k ifjfLFkfr;ka cuh gksxha ftlds dkj.k ge rqyukRed lkfgR; ij tksj nsus dks etcwj gks tkrs gSaA D;k vko”;drk gS fd ge rqyukRed lkfgR; dks le>as fdu&fdu dkj.kksa ls rqyukRed lkfgR; dk Jh x.ks”k ? ,sls D;k dkj.k Fks ftlds dkj.k rqyukRed lkfgR; 21 oha Lknh esa vius pje ij ¼;kSoukoLFkk½ vk x;kA

rqyukRed lkfgR; vaxsth] Ýkalhlh vFkok teZu lkfgR; ds Lora= v/;;u ds ckn fodflr gqvk FkkA tks Hkkjrh; lkfgR; ls fuf”pr gh igys dk gS ^rqyukRed lkfgR;* dks ysdj Hkh fo)kuksa esa erHksn jgkA okslosy us rqyukRed O;qRifr uke fn;k rks ¶yspj us ¼teZuh½ lkfgR; dk ^rqyukRed foKku* “kCn dk iz;ksx fd;kA iklusl vkSj izks- ysu diwj us rqyukRed lkfgR; “kCn dks gh LFkkf;Ro izdV fd;kA lu~ 1886 esa ,p-,e- ikstusV us vius ^dEisjsfVo fyVjspj* xazUFk esa ;g izxj fd;k fd rqyuk djuk euh’kh vkSj leh{kd dk ijEijkxr dk;Z jgk gSA 1910 esa iz[;kr vejhdh rqyuk”kkL=h ,Q-MCY;w- pSMyj us fluflUukVk fo”ofo|ky; esa rqyukRed lkfgR; ds izksQslj fu;qDr gks tkus ds ckn vius igys gh Hkk’k.k esa rqyukRed lkfgR; dk iwoZo`Rr izLrqr fd;kA izk;% rqyukRed v/;;u dks ysdj ik”pkR; lkfgR; esa 3 Ldwyksa dk cgqr egRo jgk gS%&

1-     vejhdh Ldwy

2-     isfjl teZu Ldwy

3-     :lh Ldwy

4-     vejhdh Ldwy %&

vejhdh Ldwy ds fo}ku rqyukRed lkfgR; ds varxZr Kku ds fofo/k Nk=ksa ds chp lkfgR; ds laca/kksa dks Lohdkj djus ds lkFk&lkFk lkfgR;kykspu dks Hkh rqyukRed v/;;u dk egRoiw.kZ vax Lohdkj djrs gSaA lu~ 1986 esa ,p-,e- ikstusV us vius ^dEisjsfVo fyVjspj* xzaFk esa ;g izxV fd;k fd rqyuk djuk euh’kh vkSj leh{kd dk ijaijkxr dk;Z jgk gSA 1910 esa iz[;kr vejhdh rqyuk”kkL=h ,Q-MCY;w- pSMyj us fluflUukV fo”ofo|ky; esa rqyukRed lkfgR; ds izksQslj fu;qDr gks tkus ds ckn vius igys gh Hkk’k.k esa rqyukRed lkfgr; dk iwoZo`Rr izLrqr fd;kA

vejhdh rqyukokn dk Lo:Ik fu/kkZj.k jsus osysd] gsjh ysfou vkSj MsfoM esyksu tSis fo}kuks }kjk fd;k x;k gS] blfy;s og lekurkvksa] ewy vfHkizk;ksa] “kSyhxr rroksa] dkO; fo/kkvksa] vkanksyu vkSj ijaijkvksa ds rqyukRed vUos’k.k dks izksRlkgu nsrk gqvk bl izfdz;k esa lkfgfR;d jpuk ds dykRed oSf”k’V~; dk mn~?kkVu djrk gSA jsus osysd ds vuqlkj@lkfgR; ds bfrgkl ds fy, rF;ksa dk p;u Hkh vius vkiesa ,d vkykspukRed fd;k gS] og ewY;kaduijd Hkh gSA 1908 esa fLidxkuZ us baxfy”k fdVhdy ,lst vkQ n lsosaVhaFk lsapqjh* rFkk jus osysd us ^ekMuZ f_fVflTe* xzaFkksa esa rqyukRed lkexzh izLrqr dhA xzhd vkSj fgczw lkfgR; ds rqyukRed v/;;u ij jkoVZ yksFk dk ije mikns; xzaFk ^;wjksfi;u fyVjspj ,aM n ysfVu fefMy ,tst* dkQh fookn ds ckotwn Hkh f”k{kk txr esa yksdfiz; gqvkA

f”k{kkra= esa rqyukRed lkfgR; dk izos”k lcls igys vesfjdk ds fo”ofo|ky;ksa esa chloha “krh esa gqvkA loZizFke dkjusy fo”ofo|ky; esa rqyukRed lkfgR; ds Lora= foHkkx dh LFkkiuk gqbZA ;|fi mlds v/;;u izks- ysu dwij us bl ukedj.k dks Lohdkj ugha fd;kA vesfjdk ds gkoMZ] ;sy] fizalVu] f”kdkxks] oksLVu vkSj fQykMsyfQ;k vkfn fo”ofo|ky;ksa us cM+h rRijrk fn[kk;hA baxySaM ds MªkbMu vkSj MkWa- tkulu us Hkh cgqHkk’kh; rqyukRed foospu izLrqr fd;s gSaA

isfjl teZu Ldwy

isfjl teZu Ldwy ds varxZr Qzkalhlh fo}ku rF;kRed laidksZa vkSj nLrkostksa ds fo”ys’k.k ij T;knk cy nsrs gSaA bl fopkj dk lw=ikr xksbFks us teZuh esa mUuhloha “krh ds izFke pj.k ds nkSjku fd;k FkkA blhd igyh if=dk ^fjO;w n fyrjsI;wj dajh* Qzaklhlh Hkk’kk esa isfjl fo”ofo|ky; dh vksj ls izdkf”kr gqbZA dkjs us rqyukRed lkfgR; dks lkfgR;sfrgkl dk ,d Hkkx dgkA vk/kqfud vkykspd ih”kokt rFkk :lks us rqyukRed lkfgr; ds {ks= esa lkE; ;k oS’kE;wewyd rqyuk rFkk izHkko ds lw=ksa ds v/;;u dk izlkj djrs gq, la”ys’k.kkRed n`f’V dks Lohdkj fd;kA Qzkalhlh rqyukokn ds /kqja/kj fo}ku lkjoksu fo”ofo|ky; ds jsus ,fr,fEcy ds ifjofrZr n`f’Vdks.k us bl izfdz;k dks vf/kd lqfo/kktud cukrs gq, vuNq, {ks=ksa dh vksj vkdf’kZr fd;kA ogka lkE;&oS’kE; dh n`f’V ls izLrqr v/;;u egRoiw.kZ ,oa dkQh lQy jgs gSaA⁴

Qzkal ds cqoyks o lSr C;wo] teZuh ds xksbVs o “ysxy us Hkh cgqHkk’kh; rqyukRed v/;;u fd;s gSaA T;kn ,fr,Ecy rFkk isfjl&teZn Ldwy ds vU; yksxksa us fofHkUu lkfgR;ksa ds vkilh laca/kksa] izHkko&lw=ksa] vknku&iznku rFkk :ikarjksa dk v/;;u fd;k gSA buds vuqlkj rqyukRed v/;;u varjkZ’Vªh; laca/kksa dk bfrgkl Hkh gSA

:lh Ldwy

rqyukRed v/;;u ds {ks= esa :lh Ldwy dk Hkh egRo de ugha gS bhlfy;s :lh rqyukRed lkfgR; dk ,d Lora= Ldwy gh cu x;k gSA bl Ldwy ds fo}kuksa ds fy, ;g rqyukRed lkfgR; dk lkfoZd lkfgR;d lao`fRr dk lkj laxzg gS tks fofHkUu ns”kksa ds tulewg ds lkekftd thou ds ,sfrgkfld fodkl ij fuHkZj gSA nwljs “kCnksa esa] buds vuqlkj rqyukRed v/;;u ds varxZr lkfgfR;d fo/kkvksa] vkanksyuksa] izdkjksa rFkk lkfoZd lkfgfR;d lao`fRr dk v/;;u gksrk gSa fo}ku >qjeuLdh ds vuqlkj lekt lkfgR; dk vko”;d v/k%Lrj gS rks lkfgr; la;ksx ls mldh vf/kjpuk gSA blfy;s dyk vkSj lkfgR; dk fodkl lkekftd ,sfrgkfld fodkl ds lekukarj gksrk gSA

;wuku ds izk;% lHkh izfl) vkykspd vjLrw] ykSatkbul] fnesf=;kn vkfn vkjaHk ls gh dfo;ksa] ukVddkjksa dk rqyukRed v/;;u djrs jgs gSaA ykrhuh Hkk’kk ds gksjsl us vius xzaFk ^vklZa iksbfrdk* esa ;wukuh o ykrhuh Hkk’kkvksa dk rqyukRed lkfgr; vf/kd yksdfiz; ugha gks ld] tcfd v/;;u mUuhlohsa lnh ls gh vkjaHk gks x;k FkkA bu lHkh laiznk;ksa us rqyukRed lkfgr; dh O;k[;k djrs gq, mldh vusd fo”ks’krkvksa dk mYys[k fd;k gSA

bl lcls ge bl fu’d’kZ ij igqWaprs gSa fd rqyukRed lkfgr; ,d Lora= fo’k; gS ftlesa fofHkUu Hkk’kkvksa esa jfpr lkfgr;ksa dh ,d laiw.kZ bdkbZ ds :Ik esa O;kid igpku dh vksj vf/kd laHkkouk curh gSA ;g dke fofHkUu Hkk’kkvksa es jfpr lkfgR;ksa dh ekuoh; Kku vkSj fo”ks’k :Ik ls dykRed rFkk oSpkfjd {ks=ksa ds lkFk rqyuk ls gh laHko gks ldrk gSA⁵

Hkkjrh; n`f’Vdks.k

oSals rqyukRed v/;;u igys Hkh gksrk gh FkkA laLd`r esa dkfynkl vkSj naMh dh rqyuk fganh esa lwj lwj rqylh “k”kh] nso vkSj fcgkjh dh rqyuk dh tuJqfr;kaa izfl) gSaA vkuano/kZu vkSj dqard us Hkh laLd`r vkSj izkd`r ds dfo ukVddkjksa dk lw{e xgu rqyukRed foospu izLrqr fd;k gSa nso vkSj fcgkjh dh rqyuk dks ysdj tks isarjsck ft;kWa gqbZa]  cqf) rw.khj ls tks rhj pyk;s x;s muls ge iw.kZ ifjfpr gSaA ij fdlh us bu lkjs iziapks dks rqyukRed v;;u tSlh xq: fof”k’V laKk ls vfHkfgr ugha fd;kA ij vc ;g “kCn ,d fof”k’V vFkZa ls lefUor gks x;k gSA “kks/kkfFkZ;ksa us rqyukRed “kCn dks vius {ks= esa ykdj ,d u;s jax esa jax fn;k gSA ;g “kCn bruk O;kid gksrk tk jgk gS fd rqyukred “kks/k dh ,d u;h iyVu [kM+h gksus tk jgh gSA⁶

chloha lnh esa rqyukRed n`f’V izkir gksrs gh Hkkjrh; fo}kuksa dk :>ku rqyuk ds fy, Hkkjrh; Hkk’kkvksa ds LFkku ij vaxzsth lkfgR; ds izfr gh dsafnzr jgkA lu~ 1924 esa ekbdsy e/kqlwnu nRr us vius ,d fe= dks i= essa fy[kk Fkk fd okYehfd] O;kl] dkfynkj] gksej] oftZy] nkars] Vslks rFkk feYVu ds vykok eSa fdlh nwljs dfo dh dfork ugha i<+rk gwWaA cafdepaUnz pV~Vksik/;k; us “kdaqryk&fejkaMk vkSj MslMkseuk “kh’kZd fuca/k fy[kk Fkk rFKk ckju vkSj “kSyh dh dforkvksa ds lkFk oSfnd _pkvksa dh rqyuk dh Fkh ftlds QyLo:Ik rqyukRed v/;;u dk zilj gqvkA

D;k ;g foLe; dh ckr ugh fd ,f”k;k;h Hkk’kkvksa ds lkfgR; ij rqyukRed foospu Hkkjrh; fo}kuksa ds LFkku ij lcls igys ;wjksih; fo}kuksa us “kq: fd;kA⁷

;g loZfofnr gS fd ;wjksih; fo}kuksa us loZizFke Hkkjrh; rqyukRed lkfgR; dh uhao j[khA jkoVZ dkYMosy us rqyukRed O;kdj.k fy[kk rks vyoVZ osoj us laLd`r Mªkek ij ;wukuh izHkko dh Nkuchu dhA esDlewyj us laLd`r vkSj ;wukuh lkfgR; dh ckr dh vkSj blls fo”o lkfgR; ds izfr ,d LoLFk n`f’Vdks.k dk izlkj gqvkA Hkkjrh; fo”ofo|ky;ksa esa Hkh rqyukRed lkfgR; ds izfr :fp tkxzr gqbZA loZIkYyh jk/kkd`’.ku us 1936 esa vkDlQksMZ esa ^bZLVua* fjyhtal ,aM osLVuZ FkkV* fo’k; ij Hkk’k.k nsdj rqyukRed n”kZu vksj /keZ ds izfr :fp tk;hA

1949 esa dydRrk fo”ofo|ky; esa dkcqy fo”ofo|ky; ds teZu izksQslj jsQ gsUdsy us rqyukRed lkfgR; ij rhu Hkk’k.k fn;s FksA ftuesa izks- gsUdsy us foLrkjiwoZd rqyukRed lkfgR; dh izof/k i)fr ij fopkj&foe”kZ djrs gq, foHkkx ds fy, ,d ikB~;dze Hkh lq>k;k FkkA blds ifj.kkeLo:Ik enqjkbZ vkSj dydRrk fo”ofo|ky;ksa ds ,e-, ds ikB~;dze esa rqyukRed lkfgR; ds iz”ui= Hkh lq>k;s x;s vkSj ckn esa cacbZ vkSj fnYyh fo”ofo|ky; esa Hkh ,slk gh gqvkA

jk’Vªh; lkfgR; dh ladYiuk dks ysdj Jh olar ckiV dgrs gsa& ,d dh vis{kk vf/kd lkfgR;ksa dk v/;;u ls ;gkWa rkRi;Z gS& Hkk’kkxr fHkUurkA tSls ejkBh lkfgR;] cWaxyk lkfgR;] fgUnh lkfgR;] vaxzsth lkfgR; vkfn] ijarq fHkUurk ,d Hkkf’kd lkfgR; esa Hkh gks ldrh gS tSls baxySaM] dukMk] vkLVªsfy;k vkfn jk’Vªksa esa vaxzsth dk lkfgR;A Hkkf’kde ,drk ds dkj.k bl lkfgR; dks ,d ugh ekuk tk ldrkA jk’Vªh; xq.k&/kekZs dh fof”k’Vrkvksa ds dkj.k fofHkUu jk’Vªksa ds lkfgR; dks ge fHkUu fHkUu Lohdkjrs gSaA dfri; leku xq.k&/keksZa dk Jh ckiV us jk’Vªh; oSf”k’V~; uke fn;k gSA jk’Vªh; LoHkko ds fo’k; esa cuh yksd/kkj.kk,Wa fujk/kkj ugha gSa blfy;s Qszap fLifjV] teZu fLifjV] fVfidy baxfy”k ejkBh vku] cWaxyk Hkkoqdrk vkfn xq/k&/keZ dk lkfgR; esa fo:n xku pyrk gh jgrk gSa rqyukRed lkfgfR;d vuqla/kku dk egRoiw.kZ va”k ;g gS fd jk’Vªh; lkfgR; dh ijaijkvksa dh rqyuk djds muesa fufgr lkE; oS’kE; dh tkudkjh izkIr dj ysaA⁸

iapra= vkSj fgrksins”k tSlh yksddFkkvksa ij /;ku fn;k tk; rks irk pyrk gS fd buds ihNs fo”o ds dFkk lkfgR; dh ,d /kkjk cgrh gqbZa pyh x;h gS ftldk ewy L=ksr Hkkjr esa crk;k tkrk gSa Hkkjr dh loZ Hkk’kkvksa ds dgkuh] miU;kl] ,dkadh] thouh lkfgR; vkfn ds rqyukRed v/;;u }kjk Hkkjr dh loZHkk’kk ljLorh dh igpku gks ldsxhA tgkWa lafo/kku Hkk’kk;h lg;ksx dh ckr djrk gS rks rqyukRed vuqla/kku lkfgfR;d lg;ksx dks cy iznku djrk gSa ;g lkfgfR;d ifjokj fons”kh “kklu esa viuh igpku [kks cSBk FkkA bldh ewyorhZ ,drk dk lE;d~ vuqla/kku gksuk vHkh ckdh gSa blds fy, fuLlax Hkko ls lR; “kks/k ij n`f’V dsfUnzr djrs gq, Hkkjr ds fofHkUu lkfgR;ksa esa fo|eku leku rRoksa ,oa izo`fRr;ksa dks fof/kor~ v/;;u igyh vko”;drk gSA⁹

bu rhuksa Ldwyksa us rqyukRed lkfgR; dks ckgjh lajpuk ls gh ugha tksM+k vfirq vkUrfjd ;k vkFkhZ :Ik ls Hkh leUof;r fd;kA rqyukRed lkfgR; esa vuqokn dh Hkh viuh vge Hkwfedk gksrh gSA vuqokn nks izdkj dk gksrk gSA Word for Word Translation and Sence for Sence Translation izk;% ’Sence for Sence Translation is good’ D;ksafd tc ge fdlh Hkh lkfgR; dks vkFkhZ :Ik ls le>sxsa rHkh ge mlds ckgjh Lo:Ik dh izfrek cuk ik;sxsaA izk;% rqyukRed lkfgR; dsoy ,d lkfgR; ;k ,d ls vf/kd lkfgR; dk v/;;u ek= ugha gS] vfirq blls Hkh c<+dj cgqr vkxs gS] D;ksafd dksbZ Hkh lkfgR;dkj vius {ks=] ifjos”k ls izHkkfor gksdj gh lkfgR; jpuk djrk gSA pwafd euq’; vf/kdre 10&15 Hkk’kkvksa dk Kkrk gks ldrk gS] blls vf/kd ugha vkSj mls vU; lkfgR; ds tkuus ds fy, rqyukRed lkfgR; ;k vuqokn dk lgkjk ysuk gh iM+sxkA rHkh og vU; lkfgR; dks nksuksa :iksa dks le>dj ewy leL;kvksa dks tku ik;sxk blfy, Hkh rqyukRed lkfgR; ,d fof”k’V dk;Z djrk gSA

lanHkZ xzUFk lwph

1& johUnz ukFk JhokLro] rqyukRed lkfgR; lekdyu] varjk’Vªh; lkfgR; eap] us”kuy ifCyflax gkml] ubZ fnYyh] laLddj.k 1984A

2& vkDlQksMZ fMD”kujh] i`-223

3& ujs”k xqgw] rqyukRed lkfgR; dk lekdyu] laiknd MkWa- uxsUnz i`- 30

4& MkWa banzukFk pkS/kjh] rqyukRed lkfgR; dh Hkwfedk] us”kyu ifCyflax gkml] fnYyh] i`’B 11] laLdj.k 1983

5& MkWa- nsojkt mik/;k;] lkfgR; ,oa “kks/k& dqN leL;k,Wa i`’B 149

6& ujs”k xqgw] rqyukRed lkfgR; lekdyu] laiknd uxsUnz] i`’B 24

7& clUr okiV] rqyukRed lkfgR; lekdyu laiknd uxsUnz i`’B 42

8& MkWa- uxsUnz ds loZJs’B fuca/k i`’B 70

THE SILK ROADS IN WORLD HISTORY PAST AND TODAY ( Surjeet Singh Warwal )

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THE SILK ROADS IN WORLD HISTORY PAST AND TODAY SURJEET SINGH WARWAL JUNIOR RESEARCH FELLOW DEPARTMENT OF HINDI DR. HARI SINGH GOUR CENTRAL UNIVERSITY, SAGAR, M.P. ABTRACT:
 The Silk Roads have normally been treated as a system of exchanges linking the major regions of agrarian civilization in Afro-Eurasia, and as originating in the classical era. This paper focuses on the many transecological exchanges that occurred along the Silk Roads, which linked the agrarian worlds to the pastoralist world of the Inner Eurasian steppes and the woodland cultures to the north. It argues that these trans-ecological exchanges have been as important to the history of the Silk Roads as the more familiar trans-civilizational exchanges. The main aim of study is to exploring the trans-ecological as well as the trans-civilization exchanges that occurred along the Silk Roads are to show that the exchanges mediated by the Silk Roads were older and more extensive than is suggested in the conventional accounts. KEY WORDS: Silk roads, historic exhibition. Secrets Revealed….For the first time three well-preserved mummies from the Tarim Basin in western China are presented in the United States. Secrets of the Silk Road offers the once-in-a-lifetime opportunity to come face to face with Yingpan Man, an actual Silk Road trader, who lived at the zenith of exchange between East and West - his lavish tomb goods and personal belongings included Roman glass, bow and arrows for protection, a satin perfumed sash and fine silk clothing. Encounter The Beauty of Xiaohe, a Bronze Age Caucasian mummy whose origin, culture and fate remains a mystery; but whose existence extends the history of the Silk Road back over 2000 years and redefines the ancient world.”1 This historic exhibition of over 150 objects comes from the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region Museum and the Xinjiang Institute of Archaeology in Urumqi, China and includes beautiful clothing and textiles, wooden and bone implements, coins, documents and jewel encrusted objects that reflect the full extent of Silk Road trade from China to the Mediterranean. Step back in time and experience the convergence of ancient civilizations.
The Silk Roads have normally been treated as a system of exchanges linking the major regions of agrarian civilization in Afro-Eurasia, and as originating in the classical era. This paper focuses on the many transecological exchanges that occurred along the Silk Roads, which linked the agrarian worlds to the pastoralist world of the Inner Eurasian steppes and the woodland cultures to the north. It argues that these trans-ecological exchanges have been as important to the history of the Silk Roads as the more familiar trans-civilizational exchanges. A clear understanding of these transecological exchanges suggests that the Silk Roads should be seen as a complex network of exchanges that linked different ecological zones of the Afro-Eurasian landmass into a single system. It also suggests that the Silk Roads were much older than is usually recognized, that their real origins lie in the emergence of Inner Eurasian pastoralism from the fourth millennium B.C.E. The paper explores the prehistory of the Silk Roads; reexamines their structure and history in the classical era; and
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explores shifts in their geography in the last thousand years. It concludes that a revised understanding of the role and history of the Silk Roads shows the extent to which the entire Afro-Eurasian landmass has been linked by complex Networks of exchange since at least the Bronze Age. It reminds us that Afro- Eurasia has a common history despite the ecological and cultural variety of its many different regions.”2 What was the Silk Road? The Silk Road was a huge network of trade routes that connected the many different civilizations of Asia, Europe, the Middle East, and Europe. Today, people can easily go from countries as far apart as China and Italy, but for the people of the Silk Road period, nearly 2000 years ago, it was the only international road that existed. The Silk Road connected travelers, merchants, soldiers, missionaries, pilgrims, and traders from places as far apart as Ancient China, Persia, India, Arabia and even Rome! The Silk Road was one of the only ways for the people of these ancient regions to trade ideas, technology, religion, and goods. Where was the Silk Road? The Silk Road wasn’t just one straight road. It was actually made up of many different routes that were connected. Most of the Silk Road was on land, and people travelled on it by caravan using horses and camels. A few of the routes were maritime (ocean) routes, and the only way to travel those parts was by boat! While the majority of the Silk Road was located in Asia, the Middle East, and India, some of it did extend to parts of Africa, and some even went as far as Europe! A History of Silk Sericulture or silk production has a long history unknown to many people. For centuries, the West knew very little about silk and the people who made it. For more than 2,000 years the Chinese kept the secret of silk to themselves. Chinese legend gives the title Goddess of Silk to Lady Hsi-Ling-Shih, wife of the Yellow Emperor (Huangdi), who was said to have ruled China in about 3000 BC. She is credited with the introduction of silkworm rearing and the invention of the loom. Half a silkworm cocoon unearthed in 1927 from the loess soil near the Yellow River in Shanxi Province, in northern China, has been dated between 2600 and 2300 BC. There are many indigenous varieties of wild silk moths found in a number of different countries. The mystery and magic of silk, and China’s domination of its production and promotion, lies with one species: the blind, flightless moth Bombyx Mori. It lays 500 or more eggs in four to six days and dies soon after. The eggs are the size of pinpoints – 100 of them weigh only one gram. From one gram of eggs come about 10,000 worms, which after eating a ton of mulberry leaves, produce four kilograms of raw silk. Over the thousands of years that the Chinese have practiced sericulture utilising all the different types of silk moths known to them, Bombyx Mori has evolved into the specialised silk producer it is today: a moth that has lost its power to fly, only capable of mating and producing eggs for the next generation of silk producers. To produce high quality silk, there are two conditions that need to be fulfilled: preventing the moth from hatching out and perfecting the diet on which the silkworms should feed. The Chinese developed secret ways for both. The eggs must be kept at 18°C, increasing gradually to 25°C at which point they hatch. After the eggs hatch, the baby worms feed day and night every half hour on fresh, hand-picked and chopped, mulberry leaves until they are very fat; a fixed temperature has to be maintained throughout. Thousands of feeding worms are kept on trays that are stacked one on top of another. The newly-hatched silkworm multiplies its weight 10,000 times within a month, changing colour and shedding its whitish–gray skin several times.”3
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The silkworms feed until they have stored up enough energy to enter the cocoon stage. While they are growing they have to be protected from loud noises, drafts and strong smells. When it is time to build their cocoons, the worms produce a jelly-like substance in their silk glands, which hardens when it comes into contact with air. Silkworms spend three or four days spinning a cocoon around them until they look like puffy white balls. After eight or nine days in a warm, dry place the cocoons are ready to be unwound. First, they are steamed or baked to kill the worms, or pupas. The cocoons are then dipped into hot water to loosen the tightly woven filaments. These filaments are unwound onto a spool. Each cocoon is made up of a filament between 600 and 900
The battle of Carrhae 53BC Within decades, Chinese silks became widely worn by the rich and noble families of Rome, soon spreading to other classes. The craving for silk continued to increase over the centuries, keeping its price very high. At one stage the best Chinese silk cost as much as 300 denarii (a Roman soldier’s salary for an entire year!). Silk reached the West through a number of different channels. Shortly after 300 AD, sericulture travelled westward and the cultivation of the silkworm was established in India. Then, around AD 550, two Nestorian Christian monks appeared at the Byzantine Emperor Justinian’s court with silkworm eggs hidden in their hollow bamboo staves. Under their supervision, the eggs hatched into worms, and the worms spun cocoons. The Byzantine silk industry undercut the market for ordinary-grade Chinese silk. By the 6th century the Persians, too, had mastered the art of silk weaving, developing their own rich patterns and techniques. It was only in the 13th century that Italy began silk production, with the introduction of 2,000 skilled silk weavers from Constantinople. Eventually, silk production became widespread in Europe and in the 18th century Lyon in France was known as the silk capital of the world.”4 The Silk Roads in World History
Modern historiography has not fully appreciated the ecological complexity of the Silk Roads. As a result, it has failed to understand their antiquity, or to grasp their full importance in Eurasian history. The role played by the Silk Roads in exchanging goods, technologies, and ideas between regions of agrarian civilization is well understood. Less well understood is the
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transecological role of the Silk Roads—the fact that they also exchanged goods and ideas between the pastoralist and agrarian worlds. The second of these systems of exchange, though less well known, predated the more familiar ―transcivilizational‖ exchanges, and was equally integral to the functioning of the entire system. A clear awareness of this system of trans-ecological exchanges should force us to revise our understanding of the age, the significance, and the geography of the Silk Roads. Further, an appreciation of the double role of the Silk Roads affects our understanding of the history of the entire Afro-Eurasian region. The many trans-ecological exchanges mediated by the Silk Roads linked all regions of the Afro-Eurasian landmass, from its agrarian civilizations to its many stateless communities of woodland foragers and steppe pastoralists, into a single system of exchanges that is several millennia old. As a result, despite its great diversity, the history of Afro-Eurasia has always preserved an underlying unity, which was expressed in common technologies, styles, cultures, and religions, even disease patterns. The extent of this unity can best be appreciated by contrasting the history of Afro-Eurasia with that of pre- Columbian America. World historians are becoming increasingly aware of the underlying unity of Afro-Eurasian history. Andre Gunder Frank and Barry Gills have argued that the entire Afro-Eurasian region belonged to a single ―world-system‖ from perhaps as early as 2000 B.C.E.1 And William McNeill and Jerry Bentley have recently restated the case for a unified Afro-Eurasian history.But Marshall Hodgson had made the same point as early as the 1950s, when he argued that ―historical life, from early times at least till two or three centuries ago, was continuous across the Afro-Eurasian zone of civilization; that zone was ultimately indivisible… The whole of the Afro-Eurasian zone is the only context large enough to provide a framework for answering the more general and more basic historical questions that can arise.‖ This paper argues that the Silk Roads played a fundamental role in creating and sustaining the unity of Afro-Eurasian history. It counts as one more attempt by a historian interested in ―world history‖ to tease out the larger historical significance of the Silk Roads.”5 The Great Silk Exchange: How the World was Connected and Developed The history of the silk trade evokes images of another well-known historical entity: the Silk Road, the famous overland route that traversed the heartland of the Eurasian continent. The term Silk Road (die Seidenstrasse) was a term coined by the 19th century German explorer Baron Ferdinand von Richthofen. Although silk was perhaps the most important commodity that traveled along the Road, others such as precious metals and stones, spices, porcelain and textiles also passed through. However, the Silk Road was perhaps more significantly an avenue for the exchange of ideas. Some of the most fundamental ideas and technologies in the world – the technology of making paper, printing, and manufacturing gunpowder, among many others – made their way across Asia via this highway. Migrants, merchants, explorers, pilgrims, refugees, and soldiers brought along with them religious and cultural ideas, domesticated animals, plants, flowers, vegetables, fruit, plagues and disease, as they joined this gigantic cross-continental exchange. The Silk Road, as so rightfully claimed, was the melting pot, the lifeline of the Eurasian Continent (Franck and Brownstone 1986: 2; Werblowsky 1988). In East Asia, Silk Road has long been enshrined as a symbol of cross-cultural exchanges of religions, commodities and technology.”6 Religions and Belief Systems
The religious beliefs of the peoples of the Silk Road changed radically over time, largely due to the effects of travel and trade on the Silk Road. When China defeated the nomadic Xiong’nu confederation and pushed Chinese military control north-west as far as the Tarim Basin (in the 2nd century BC), Buddhism was known in Central Asia but was not yet
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widespread in China and had not reached elsewhere in East Asia. The founding of Christianity was still more than a century away and Islam more than 7 centuries in the future. the Silk Road in its early decades followed many different religions, mostly pagan. Jewish merchants and other settlers had spread beyond the borders of the ancient kingdoms of Israel and Judea and had established their own places of worship in towns and cities throughout the region. In Persia and Central Asia, many people were adherents of Zoroastrianism, a religion founded by the Persian sage Zoroaster in the 6th century BC. It posited a struggle between good and evil, light and darkness; its use of fire as the symbol of the purifying power of good was probably borrowed from the Brahmanism of ancient India. By the 1st century BC, the Greek colonies of Central Asia that had been left behind after the collapse of the empire of Alexander the Great had largely converted from Greco-Roman paganism to Buddhism, a religion that would soon use the Silk Road to spread far and wide. In India, on side routes of the Silk Road that crossed the passes to the Indus Valley and beyond, the older religion of Brahmanism had given way to Hinduism and Buddhism; the former never spread far beyond India and Southeast Asia, while the latter eventually extended worldwide. In China, there was, as yet, no official state cult of Confucius, no Buddhism, and no organised religious Daoism. For 2,000 years the Silk Road was a network of roads for the travel and dissemination of religious beliefs across Eurasia. Religious belief is often one of the most important and deeply held aspects of personal identity, and people are reluctant to go where they cannot practice their own faith. Therefore, traders who used the Silk Road regularly built shrines and temples of their own faiths in their travels, to maintain their own beliefs and practices of worship while they were far from home. Missionaries of many faiths accompanied caravans on the Silk Road, consciously trying to expand the reach of their own religious persuasion and make converts to their faith. The dynamics of the spread of beliefs along the Silk Road involves a crucial, difference: generally speaking, religions are either proselytising or non-proselytising. In the former case, ethnicity, language, colour, and other physical and cultural differences are taken to be of relatively small importance compared with the common humanity of all believers, and the availability of the faith (and its particular canons of belief, forms of worship and promises of salvation) to all humans everywhere.”7 The Silk Road Today
The Silk Road today is a rich tapestry of tourism destinations and products based on the unique and outstandingly rich heritage, nature, and traditions of dozens of distinct histories, peoples and cultures all along the timeless route now extending a warm welcome to visitors. A modern-day silk worm farm in the small Greek town of Soufli; Egypt’s Red Sea coast where ships from India once unloaded their cargoes of silk and that now boasts some of the finest scuba diving in the world; the Muslim call to prayer from a mosque in the agesold caravan city of Bukhara in Uzbekistan and the still bustling bazaar in the western Chinese city of Xian where Silk Road merchants have haggled for centuries. All these experiences and many, many more await the visitor seeking to capture the magic of the old Silk Road, for adventure travellers who want an active holiday among the stunning natural scenery and tourists eager to witness at first hand the fascinating and exotic local customs. In 1993 the UNWTO initiated a long-term project to organize and promote the Silk Road as a tourism concept. In 1994 representatives from 19 participating nations came together and adopted the historic Samarkand Declaration on the Silk Road Tourism and approved a special logo to be used by all governments, organizations and private sector entities involved. Since then forums and meetings were held and in 2002 the participants adopted the Bukhara Declaration on Silk Road Tourism which stressed the benefits of sustainable tourism and outlined specific steps to stimulate cultural and ecological tourism to Silk Road destinations. A Silk Road
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Tourism Office, hosted by the Uzbek government and with support of UNWTO was opened in Samarkand in 2004. The World Tourism Organization published a Silk Road Tourism brochure in 1997, which was highly appreciated by the countries participating in the UNWTO Silk Road Project. This new brochure presents a mosaic of tourism products, sites and attractions of the Silk Road region as a whole, with the objective of contributing to a better knowledge of its tourism potential.”8 Heritage Cities Xian (CHINA) During 11 dynasties the city of Xian (formerly known as Changán) was the capital of China and is considered by many scholars as the true starting point for the Silk Road on the Asian mainland. From Xian, the route divided into two separate roads so travellers could avoid the often times fatal Taklamakan Desert. According to historians, the first person to travel the Silk Road was Chinese – Zhang Qian – who trekked West in the 2nd century BC to search for military allies against the Huns and returned home 13 years later full of fascinating tales, making him a kind of Marco Polo in reverse. Monuments from the golden days of the great trade route can still be visited today such as the well-preserved ancient city wall and gate towers, as well as the impressive Great Wild Goose Pagoda. Xian’s Shaanxi Provincial Historical Museum boasts a special Silk Road exhibit and the city frequently hosts international Silk Road conferences and meetings. Mashad (IRAN) Religious sites were also destinations for those traversing the Silk Road and the Iranian city of Mashad has long been an important pilgrimage centre for Shiite Muslims from around the world. Long before they reach the city, the devotees can see the golden dome of the shrine of Imam Reza, the eighth imam they have come to honour and who was buried here after his death by suspected poisoning in the 9th century. Dazzling mirror work, chased gold and silver designs, marble and intricate tile work decorate the mosque which is visited by an estimated one million pilgrims a year from around the world. Another important site is the turquoise-domed Gowhar Shad Mosque, built by the wife of a Timurid shah in the 15th century. Many visitors to Mashad make the short journey to Toos to visit the tomb of Persia’s finest epic poet, Ferdowsi, or to Neishapur where Omar Khayyam is buried, before visiting the bazaar to purchase one of the fine, locally-made carpets.”9 Nara (JAPAN) Widely recognized as the final eastern terminus of the Silk Road, Nara was the ancient capital of Japan and where the country’s primary sites from that era are located. One of the highlights is the Shosoin Treasure Repository of the Emperor where many valuable pieces such as jewels, silverware, glass work, writing instruments and other artefacts linked to the Silk Road are housed. Another attraction is the Todaiji Temple built in the 8th century and famous for its Great Buddha, the largest bronze statue in the world. Horuji Temple in Nara is one of the oldest temples in Japan and also the oldest wooden structure in the world. Chinese Buddhist priests founded Toshodaiji Temple to introduce Ritsu doctrines to local believers.Nara is also home of the highly-acclaimed Samarkand (UZBEKISTAN)
Samarkand, almost alone among the Silk Road cities, symbolized the mystery and magnificence of the exotic East and Central Asia. Over the centuries it has been the sole inspiration for many travellers to make the dangerous trek along the route and spawned many fascinating tales. Once known as Afrasiab, this city of magnificent turquoise and buff-
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coloured mosques and mausoleums is still one of the treasures of the Silk Road. One of those mausoleums is that of the great and feared conqueror Tamerlane whose capital was Samarkand and from where he and his descendents set out to subdue surrounding lands and peoples to create a true trans-Asian empire. On any must-see list in Samarkand is Registan Square, the Bibi Khanum Mosque, the Shah-I-Zinda mausoleum complex and the Imam Al-Bulahari Mausoleum shrine located just outside the city. Visitors today also throng Samarkand’s famous bazaars to buy handicrafts and other traditional mitems from the region. The city was the site of the Samarkand Declaration on Silk Road Tourism in 1994. Peshawar (PAKISTAN Silk Road travellers arriving from the West and from Central Asia passed through the fabled Khyber Pass and nearby Peshawar on their way to South Asia. In those days the city’s bazaars were fascinating hubs of commercial activity and remain so today with shops offering silk, samovars, priceless rugs, spices, leather, gold and silver, just as they have for centuries. Housed in a building dating from the British Raj, Peshawar Museum contains some of the finest works of the Ghandara civilization which flourished centuries before Christ, including sculptures, terracotta figurines and everyday objects, as well as a mammoth standing Buddha. There are also fine displays of Islamic and tribal artifacts. One of the city’s most impressive sights for generations of visitors is the Bala Hisaar Fort at the eastern approach to Peshawar. The fortress’ origins are lost in the mists of time but it was described by the early Chinese voyager Hsuan Tsang and is today a military headquarters. harem; the stunning Blue Mosque, decorated with the famous Iznik tiles, and a host of palaces, baths and churches. The glory days of the Silk Road are recalled in the Covered Bazaar, considered the largest such market in the world‖10 Conclusion The Silk Roads or even of the many different societies through which they passed. The main result of exploring the trans-ecological as well as the trans-civilization exchanges that occurred along the Silk Roads is to show that the exchanges mediated by the Silk Roads were older and more extensive than is suggested in the conventional accounts. If this argument is accepted, it has immense significance for our understanding of the history of the entire Afro-Eurasian landmass. For it suggests that the different regions of Afro Eurasia—the regions of agrarian civilization, as well as those of pastoralism or woodland foraging cultures—exchanged ideas, languages, goods, cultural motifs, and perhaps also disease vectors, much more vigorously and for a much longer period than is usually appreciated. This conclusion reinforces the claim of Frank and Gills that the entire Afro-Eurasian world belonged to a single world-system, perhaps since early in the second millennium B.C.E. And this suggests, as Hodgson argued long ago and Frank has recently argued in ReOrient, that it may be a profound mistake to focus primarily—as does the traditional historiography of Eurasia—on the various component regions or ―civilizations‖ of Eurasia. Instead, to understand the history of each of these parts, it is necessary to see that there is, underlying them, a single Afro- Eurasian history, which is distinct from the history of other major world zones, such as the Americas, sub-Saharan Africa, or Oceania. For Afro- Eurasian societies shared many important things as a result of the exchanges that occurred along the Silk Roads
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Not and References
1. David Christian, ―Silk Roads or Steppe Roads? The Silk Roads in World History.‖ Journal of World History 11, no. 1 (2000): 1–26.
2. Life Along the Silk Road by Susan Whitfield
3. The Mummies of Urumchi by Elizabeth Wayland Barber
4. Christian, David, Silk Roads or Steppe Roads? The Silk Roads in World History, Journal of World History, Vol. 11, 2000.
5. Falconer, Colin, Silk Road, Corvus, 2011
6. Hopkirk, Peter, Foreign Devils on The Silk Road, OUP, 1980
7. UNESCO Mission to The Chinese Silk Road as World Cultural Heritage Route, 2003
8. See A. G. Frank, and B. K. Gills, eds., The World System: Five Hundred Years or Five Thousand? (New York: Routledge, 1992); Frank has extended this argument to the modern era in ReOrient: Global Economy in the Asian Age (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998).
9. William H. McNeill, “World History and the Rise and Fall of the West,” Journal of World History 9 (1998): 215–36; Jerry H. Bentley, ―Hemispheric Integration, 500–1500 B.C.E.,‖ Journal of World History (1998): 237–54.
10. Peter Hopkirk, Foreign Devils on the Silk Road: The Search for the Lost Treasures of Central Asia (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980).

TRANSLATION PROCESS AND PROBLEM OF TRANSLATION IN WORLD CLASSICS ( Surjeet Singh Warwal )

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TRANSLATION PROCESS AND PROBLEM OF TRANSLATION IN
WORLD CLASSICS
Surjeet Singh Warwal
Junior Research Fellow
Department of Hindi
Dr. Hari Singh Gour Central University,
Sagar (M.P.) India
Translation is the comprehension of the meaning of a text and the subsequent production
of an equivalent text, likewise called a “translation” that communicates the same message in
another language. The text that is translated is called the source text, and the language that it is
translated into is called the target language. The product is sometimes called the target text.
Translation is the word for Greek and translation word made up two think one is Trans+
Lation, trans means across Lation means to bring. Thus we can say that translation is the S.L to
Converted to T.L. Translation is a creative process of reproducing the text from S.L to T.L . It is
like a change one set of clothes to another where the context is same. Chukovask “Translation
is not a Art but a high Art” E. V Nida “E. V. Nida has a significant roll in the field of
translation. His work “Towards a science of translating 1964” attempts to Provide an
essentially descriptive approach to the process of translation. which discussing the theory of
translation. Nida gave examples primarily from bible material. Acc. to Nida there are certain
restrictions on translation imposed by the culture contexts linguist ion and literary style or media
of communication. In translating poetry stylistic restrictions are most important because mainly
the essence of poetry lies in the formal envelop for a meaningful context.
Acc. To Nida basic thing in the principle and produces of translation is the understanding
of the way in which meaning is expressed through language as a communication code. In it there
is three steps.
1. The parts which constitute such code.
2. The manner in which such codes operates.
3. The such code as language related to other words.
Nida classified the study of meaning into three parts
1. Semantic It deals with the relationship of science to referents.
2. Syntactic It is concerned with relationship of symbol to symbol.
3. Pragmatic It deals with the relation of symbols to behavior.
Among these three the pragmatic element of meaning is most important because the
Effectiveness of any message is dependent on the Understanding of receptor of that message.
Thus we can say that the reactions of people or the response of receptor are the fundamentals of
the analysis of any communication.
Different author give different types of the process of translation but the main propose of
translations to translate the S.L.T into T.L.T. in this process the first step is decoding the S.L test,
the another , first of all understands about the inherent port of the source language text. He
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understands the content socio- culture aspect of S.L.T after that the next step encoding in into
T.L text..
The transition can be done by two ways.
1 Personal Translation
2 Agency
The purpose of translation is to give knowledge to everyone , First of all the translator
analysis the S.L.T.
According to Nida (1964), and Surya Wdnata (1982) there are three Types of activity in
process of translation. Analysis of S.L.T and second thing is transfer the Context and third the
restructuring in the T.l.T Bell’s (1991) Point of views syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic.
According to Herbay Higgings and Heywood (1995) two types
1 Understanding the S.L.T
2 Formulating the T.L.T
Theories of Translation
During 20th century, many Scholars have carried research on various aspects of
translation. The main thorists of translation who contribute to the theory of translation earlier are
J.C Catford, Nida Peter Newmark .
J.C Catford – According to J.C Catford “Translation id a replacement of Texual material
of one language ( S.L ) by equivalent texual material in Another language ( T.L )
J. C. Catford’s work’s name “A Lingistic theory of translation” (1965) Deals with the
analysis’s description of translation process. In this book J.C Catford proposed 3 general
categories of translation in term of .
Catord sets up a theory of translation based on general linguistic theory developed by
‘Holliday’ for him. Theory of translation is a branch of comparative linguistic as it deals with
certain types of relation B/W language. It is essentially a theory of applied Linguistics.
Catford feels that the central problem of translation practice is that of finding target
language translation equivalents. So the central task of translation theory is that of defining the
nature and condition of translation equivalence. Catford feels that in general theory of translation
both phonological and graph logical. Translation’s must be include since they help to throw light
on the condition of translation Equivalence and there by on the more complex process of total
translation Example .
In rank bound translation T.L equivalent are selection always at the same rank it is bad
translation. In unbound translation equivalent shunt up and down the rank s call freely.
Catford (distinguished) B/W translation Equivalence as an empirical phenomenon
discussing by comparing S.L and T.L text’s . the underling conditions of Justification of
1- Extent
Full
Partial
2- Level
Totel
Partial
3- Rank
Bound
Unbond
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translation equivalence while discussing translation equivalence as an empirical phenomenon he
further distinguishes b/w textual equivalence and formal correspondence. Textual equivalence is
any target language text, formal correspondence is any T.L category which can be said to occupy
as nearly as possible the same piece in the economy of T.L as the given S.L category occupies in
the S.L (The ultimate text for textual equivalence is communication. According to this text we
may systematically introduce changes in S.L.T and observers what changes if any occur in the
T.L.T as a consequence.
Textual translation equivalent is that portion of T.L.T which is changed when an only
when a given portion of S.L.T is changed. Communication can also be used to demonstrate the
lack of equivalents for a given S.L items Example in English my father was a doctor In Hindi
mere pita ji doctor the. In Hindi the word ‘A” is missing, it show’s lack of Equivalence.
In a text a specific S.L item may occur several times and at each occurrence there will be
a specific T.L textual equivalence. By observing each particular textual equivalence we can
make a general statement if textual equivalences for each S.L items covering all its occurrences
in the text as a whole. It is quantified equivalence but formal correspondence can be only
established on the basis of textual equivalence.
Importance of meaning in translation
J.C Catford feels that it is very necessary for translation theory to drown upon a theory of
meaning , without such a theory many important aspects of the process of translation can not be
discussed the theory of meaning is derived from the view of J.R Firth, J.C defines meaning as the
total network of relation entered into by any linguistic form text , item in text structure, element
of structure, term in system or what ever it may be so meaning is the property of language S.L
text has S.L meaning’s T.L text has T.L meaning Catford discussed 2 kind of relation entered
into by the formal linguistic units of grammar’s Lyric ( stock of words) These are formal
relation and second is contextual relation’s. The relation b/w one formal item’s other’s in the
same language are called formal relations, The relationship of grammatical or lyrical item’s to
linguistically relevant elements in the situation in which the items operate or in text is called
contextual relations. The formals contextual meanings of S.L & T.L items can rarely be the same
there is no one to one relationship b/w grammatical excel items’ there contextual meaning of any
language.
Catford also finds out the difference between translation & Transference. In translation
the S.L meaning gets substituted by T.L meaning in transference the implementation of S.L
meaning into the T.L text takes place.
Translation Equivalents
Catford said that translation equivalents are those S.L & T.L text or items that can be
inter-changeable in a given situation. He feels the translation equivalence is to be established at
sentence rank because sentence is the grammatical unit most directly related to speech functions
with in a situation
Catford talks about 2 types of translation shifts:-
1- lavel shifts.
2- Category shifts
1- Lavel shifts :- These are the shifts from one linguistic level to other such as from grammer to
text vice-versa.
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2- Category shifts :- These are the departures from formal correspondence in translation. These
may include structure shifts, class shifts, unite shifts or intra shifts system.
J.C catford also emphasis the role of played by language varieties in translation. The
selection of an appropriate registere in t.l. is very important in translation.
Translatability :- while discussing the limits of translability catford makes it clear that s.l. tent
is more or less translatable. He said untranslatability accurs when it is impossible to built
functionaley relevant features of the situation into the contentual meaning of T.L. tent. ACC. to
him there are 2 types of untranslatability
1- linguistic untranslatability :- It occurs mainly due to the lack of formal correspondence
b/w S.L. & T.L. It also occurs when an item having a particular restricted range of
meaning In Russian, prisla means ‘come’ or arrive on language the foot. English has no
lereical item with the corresponding restricted range of conteritual meaning.
2- Cultural untranslatabilty :- It arisen when a situational feature functionally relevant for
S.L. Tent is completely absent from the culture of which the T.L is a part.
Contribution of Catford to theory of translation :-
First of all it is a first extensive work on the theory of translation J.C. Catford discusses various
aspects & problems of translation. His theory of translation is based on general linguistic theory
of translation Is purely linguistic & tactual. In his theory translation equivalence is to be
established at the rank of sentence. The contextual factors that influence the process of
translation like the author / translator his social & cultural background, his interned audience, his
aim in translating the tent & the types of tent etc. are completely left art. In his thory the
discourse level beyond the sentence have not been taken care of so we can say that J.C. Catford’s
contribution in the field of translation is valuable.
Indian translation are divided for 3 period
1- Medieval period In this time most of the translation working for Sanskrit events. They
are not bound for word for word translation and sense for sense translation. Not translating
mother tang language and national language. In the medieval period attack the Muslim on India
then most of translation working does not good translation in the Akbar and Sharja time’s period
the most of writer writing literature and working for translation in which particular case most of
translation working good because main focuses for sense for sense translation . in this time most
of the translation working good
2- British Colonial Period In this time most of the translator are forger for example
English Translator . They found some Vedic Literature and other medieval translation Literature
. In which particular case most of the Translator working are not good because the medieval
translator are translating for word for word and not focus sense for sense then in this period , the
foreigner and Indian translator working main focus for word for sense. Most of Indian leader
translating the book for example “Mahatma Gandhi” and” Ravindra Nath Taggore “.
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3- Contemporary Translation
Machine translation
The history of machine translation generally starts in the 1950s, although work can be
found from earlier periods. The Georgetown experiment in 1954 involved fully automatic
translation of more than sixty Russian sentences into English. The experiment was a great
success and ushered in an era of significant funding for machine translation research. The
authors claimed that within three or five years, machine translation would be a solved problem.
However, the real progress was much slower, and after the ALPAC report in 1966, which
found that the ten years long research had failed to fulfill the expectations, the funding was
dramatically reduced. Starting in the late 1980s, as computational power increased and became
less expensive, more interest began to be shown in statistical models for machine translation.
Today there is still no system that provides the holy-grail of “fully automatic high quality
translation of unrestricted text” (FAHQUT) . However, there are many programs now available
that are capable of providing useful output within strict constraints; several of them are available
online, such as Google translate and the SYSTRAN system which powers Alta Vista’s (Yahoo’s
since May 9,2008) Babel fish.
Problems in translation of world classics
The term “world classic” hardly needs a definition. To my mind, it is a work of literary,
or broadly artic, nature which has an appeal to various minds with various cultural and historical
backgrounds. Such works are numerous, embracing wonders of expression, from the Upanishads
down to the Waste land, including the holy books of Christianity and Islam. These world classics
have had their impressions on the minds of readers across the ages. But the fact that they were
composed in various languages presents a vital problem before the translator.
The case of translating the Bible into Arabic has for long been a source of heated
argument. The fact is that the Arabic Bible is simply Unreadable. It is true that the Song of Songs
has a certain appeal to readers with a poetic turn of mind, tinged with erotic flavors. But those
who know their Hebrew say that the biblical criticism is rather blurred in the Arabic Translation.
This is very significant indeed, since the two languages are Semitic, and so very close to each
other in grammar and syntax. But the Arabic version of the songs of Songs is the highest
example of Poetic style compared to the rest of the bible, says the Ecclesiastes, the Acts, not to
say anything of Genesis itself. The Language is simple is not Arabic, and the tern of Phrase
sounds so strange that the very meaning is clouded and soon lost.
Whys is this so? Judging by What is known of the early Translators of the Bible into
Arabic, they were mean burning with religious zeal, whose knowledge of Arabic leaves a lot to
be desired. In fact one major translator was a European missionary, Van Dyke, Whose Arabic
was too wooden to lend itself to a flowing phrase. The Book was Holy. Therefore The translation
had to be just, Exact, and lexically correct. Hence The loss of the poetry and the emotional
charge of the original . Hebrew and Aramaic are not Latin or Italian in the tonal value. But
hearing the Psalms Chanted in those rugged languages inspires even an atheist with a musical ear
with that divine awe, which is a symptom of understanding.
And that is why the Arabic Bible remains largely unread, even by “good Christians” of
today who are this side of Fifty. It is also no wonder that a God Loving father would advise his
son to start reading the Binle, skipping the Songs, Only to find soon after that the only part of the
Bible which had any appeal to the youngster was the Songs of Solomon, and nothing else.
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The Authorized Version was made when poetry and drama flourished in England adding
more grace and elegance to the age of Queen Elizabeth such as this time master of the English
style as Marlowe and Shakespeare. The popularity of Drama and Poetry, and the standards of
poetic expression, set by the court of Elizabeth, which extended through out the seventeenth
century, formed the background to the Authorized version. It is true that “Biblical English” is
Quaint, but it is Attractive and beautiful, hence appealing to the reader. Modern English id not
like Shakespeare’s English. But a modern reader of the Songs and sonnets finds the
Shakespearean turn of Phrase appealing enough to deserve a little working out of the meaning. It
is a similar case with the Authorized Version, where the spirit of the Language denotes an age of
Elegance and beauty of style. Yet, even this was found incompatible with the spirit of the
twentieth century, and the “English Bible” was produced about thirty years ago in England, to
reader the Authorized Version more Readable to people Living in the twentieth century.
The major problem in translating a classic which is a holy book is, therefore, manly
stylistic. The historical aspect of the work seems to follow, rather smoothly, in the form of the
story told. When it is told in a smooth style there is usually very little to worry about on the level
of understanding. Believing the history told in the story is a matter highly dependent on how that
story is told. Again it is a question of style. A good deal of the appeal the miracle plays had on
the medieval audience was due to the history told in the those plays. When that history was
acted, the audience found it easier to understand questions like creation, Noah’s flood, the
Nativity, or the Immaculate Conception.
And history is one major tributary of culture. It follows, then, that a classic work with a
biblical background is basically dependent on a familiarity with the history taught by the Bible.
The cultural background becomes more or less difficult to grasp by both reader and translator in
ratio with the historical background of both reader and translator. So much for approaching a
classic in its original language. When it comes to the translation of such classic, the job of the
translator becomes at least twofold. You may translate Shakespeare or Milton to French or
German and you have an audience with essentially similar historical and cultural background,
and a familiarity with the Bible. There the historical aspect of the classic is more or less under
control of translator and reader. The cultural aspect becomes easier to approach by both
translator and reader means of a familiar historical background. But, how does it fare with the
Arab translator of Milton and Shakespeare, when the translator is predominantly Moslem in
religion, not familiar enough with the Bible, or Christian, not quite familiar with his own holy
Book? The question becomes more embarrassing when addressing an audience in the Arab world
which is not only unfamiliar with European history and culture, but not very familiar with its
own Bible, that basically middle eastern product of the mind. And this applies to reader of the
Christian faith before it does to other.
A test of good translation is the initial understanding and appreciation of the classic by
the translator himself. A poor translation is, therefore, an indication that the translator has failed
to grasp the text, and has, therefore, failed to render an effective translation. And there are many
example of this . The case of English translation of the Quran is perhaps a classic example. Now,
as every Moslem scholar knows, the miracle of the Quran is verbal and rhetorical. The Arabs are
a national who are primarily moved by words. A great cause of celebration among the ancient
Arab tribes was the emergence of a gifted poet in the tribe. The annual pilgrimage was also an
Olympiad of poetry. The winner had his poem inscribed and suspended on the curtains of the
holy Ka’aba,hence the suspended odes of pre-Islamic times. The first reaction to the verses of the
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Quran, recited by Prophet Mohammad is that his speech was poetry. This bwas the Arabic
description of sublimity of expression and eloquence of speech. Therefore, a translation of the
Quran, the prodigy of Arabic expression, is that if its inspiration by God. A translation of the
Quran into another language, European or otherwise, cannot hope to come anywhere near the
meaning of the verses. The spirit of the language and the sublimity of style are impossible to
render in any other language and the sublimity of style are impossible to render in any other
language but that of the original Arabic.
The golden age of Arabic translation was that of the abbasid Calif Al-Mamoun in 9th
century Baghdad. One great classic that was translated into Arabic was Aristotle’s poetics. This
book was known to the Arab scholars in Baghdad in some form in the second half of the 9th
century. But the first translation was a poor Arabic translation made from an equally poor Syriac
translation from some Greek manuscript.. the first Arabic translation, made by Matta ibn Younis
Al-Qinai (d.939) was so bad that it moved an eminent Arav grammarian in Baghdad in the year
932 to accuse Matta of ignorance of both Arabic and Greek. Indeed the translation reads so bad
that one is lost as to what the words mean. Eminent scholars like Al-Kindi, Al- Farabi,Avicenna
and Averroes were all groping for the meaning of what the Greek philosopher had in mind.
Whether the original Syriac translation or the first Arabic translator know their Greek is belied
by the fact that the translation means means very little to the Arab reader.
The case of more modern classic like Shakespeare or Eliot presents historical and cultural
problems to the translator into Arabic which are basically similar to those met by the early
translators of the poetics. Shakespeare’s plays, there were three which were not yet translated
into Arabic in 1977, translate one of them : Timon of Athens. Basic problem was more cultural
then historical. The latter could be dealt with in an introduction, presenting Shakespeare the
playwright and artist to the average Arab reader. A surmountable difficulty was to present a
Shakespeare without journalstic glamorization or academic disputation. To set a text in its
sensible historical perspective is one major task before the translator. The various editions of
Shakespeare vary in this respect, and the Arden edition seems to offer the best in the way of
serious but not pedantic introduction , the translator has it all made for him. All he has to do is
to chose the better edition. But in this case of Timon on major problem before the editor was
establish the historical authenticity of the play. Hence the labyrinthal research into the historical
background of the Shakespeare’s plays, and of Timon in particular. Is such historical
preoccupation necessary for the Arab reader, therefore, ought to be translated.
The cultural aspect in Timon, and in Shekespeare’s plays in general,is overreaching. The
man “had little Latin and less Greek” but that was no drawback, despite all the “University Wits”
who could not bear to see “an upstart crow , beautifying himself on their feathers” Shakespeare
could, in Eliot’s words, make more of North’s Plutarch then many could make of the British
Museum. What the average English reader could learn about ancient Greece and Rome by
reading Shakespeare is really quite considerable, even if such English reader had little Latin and
less Greek. A reader who thinks of culture as embracing worlds outside Greece and Rome will
find God’s plenty in the rest of Shakespeare’s plays. In a more specific sense of culture, the
translator of Shakespeare play into Arabic will meet verbal and technical problems, concerning
prosody and figures of speech. “Poetry is the Arabs’ parlor” is a catch phrase in Arabic literary
criticism . A student of Arabic culture, language and literature always starts with poetry, for there
one can find everything about the Arabs. Therefore, to translate English poetry, dramatic or
otherwise , into Arabic, one is hunted by the Arabic rules of prosody and the Arabic turn of
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phrase. One is always tempted to use rhyme and rhythm in his Arabic rendition. Sometimes to a
devastating result . One is also overwhelmed by the cadence of an iambic pentameter of the
frivolous rhythms of a songs or repartee in a comedy that one would like to achieve its
reproduction on Arabic. And these are the very quicksand’s before the translator. When a reader
is not familiar with the original play in English, the Arabic translation will always remain a few
removes away , and of limited value. Those who cannot read English have to be content with the
translation. And here is the great responsibility of the translator. In the case of Julius Caesar
translated in Egypt by the collaboration of three well known writers. The fact of collaboration in
translation is not like collaboration in writing a play, a common practice in Elizabethan England .
But this is another matter, though a drawback in the case of translation. The result was metrical
Arabic in lines which assume the appearance of blank verse, which is “neither hoarse nor ass”
people would have said. Ridiculous though it my seem, the metrical translation of Julius Caesar
shows what happens when such not unwholesome desires take a grip over the translator.
The case for the figures of speech seems less frightening to the translator. It is always
possible to find an Arabic equivalent to an English metaphor or simile, a pun or a proverb which
will satisfy the Arab reader. When this is not possible a literal translation will satisfy the
meaning and will retain the foreign taste which actually underlines the meaning. And this is
some who acceptable to the reader who finds in it something new to learn, and he usually does
not resent that.
Cultural concepts usually need footnotes which, again, are acceptable with no resentment.
The description of poets as liars, for instance, with its Platonic overtones, is acceptable to the
Arab readers who are of the Moslem faith, as there is a well- known reference in the Quran to the
poets as liars, who do not practice what they preach . A brief footnote to the origin of the idea in
Plato and Quran is big help. A similar reference to betrayal in the behavior of Judas Iscariot
could benefit from a brief footnote to a reader who is not familiar with the Bible.
When we come to a contemporary classic like Eliot’s Waste land the historical- cultural
problems become ever more formidable. This problem poem was translated four times to Arabic
in the last twenty years or so. Each time the translated buffed the average Arabic reader more
then before. It is a common place of modern criticism to point out that the Waste land makes
vital references to 35 books mostly not within the reach of the average English reader. The poem
also has Quotations in six European Languages, including Provencal, in addition to Sanskrit. As
a poet never bothered to give references which satisfy the average reader, the shock and
bafflement become a sort of anger at the poet, whose attitude to the reader may well be
interpreted as an accusation of ignorance. And here comes the double job of the translator, who
has to present a translation and an explanation. Twenty- five centuries of culture, living in the
very marrow of the poet, whose individual talent should be conscious of tradition as well. The
heritage of humanity is also the history of culture, only partially limited by Sanskrit and the
western Europeans language. The source of all wisdom and cultures, Eliot feels, is Sanskrit
which is the fountainhead of Indo- European cultures. A return to the fountainhead is necessary
for salvation. But, to present aspects of these cultures can only be done in the form of a “heap of
broken images” these, when translated, will remain a heap of broken images. Explanation and
interpretation will put the pieces together , and the comprehensive image of culture will,
hopefully, become complete.
The task os showing the Arabic reader that the Waste land was written in a form called
“free verse” was most difficult to grapple with. In the Arabic Literary tradition “poetry is a
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speech which has rhyme and rhythm” sixteen meters limit the traditional Arabic poetry, and a
violation of their rules caste the speech into various circles of prosaic hell. A translator of Eliot to
Arabic has to deal with that point first, showing how the “music of ideas” could replace the
rhythmic feet in traditional metrical verse. In addition to this culture problem, there is the
overwhelming problem of references. These are so numerous that the translator has be on his
guard not to lose sight of the wood for the trees. Eliot spoke of the historical sense in poetry as
well as the historical sense in criticism. These have to be made available to the reader of the
Arabic translation before one can hope that the poem has entered the orbit of understanding.
Introduction and footnotes, then, cannot be enough to make a translation of the Waste
Land fully understood and appreciated. It is simple a different sort of classic which embraces
various aspects of human history and human culture. The poem has earned the reputation of
ambiguity and difficulty, and there is small wonder at that. But a classic also should be made
available to the average reader, for the sake of democratization of culture, if for no other reason.
And this can only be done through analysis and interpretation. Translation here must be a work
of scholarship as well ass that of transplanting a poem from one language to another.
Notes and Reference
1. Dell Hymes, Language in culture and society, Bombay: Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd. 1964 p.91.
2. M. G. Kolhatkar, Othello, Pune: Modem Book Depot, 1962, New Ed. First published in 1890
p.2.
3. C. B.Dewwal, Jhunzar Rao, Pune, Ramya Katha Prakashan, 1976 New Ed. First publishedf in
1890, p.5.
4. V.V. shirwadkar, Othello, Bombay, Popular Prakashan, 1965. Second Ed, Firm published in
1961, p.19.
5. Reuben A. Brower, Mirror on mirror, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1974 p. 159.
6. James, S. Holmes “Literature and Translation”,Katholike universiteit te Leuven, (1970).
7. Nida, E.A., and taber, C.R., Theory and Practice of Translation, Boston, Brill Academic
Publishers, 1982.
8. Mueller, Kurt, Volluner and Transcher, Michael (Ed.), Translating Literatures, Translating
cultures: New vistas and approaches in Literary studies, Burlin,Erich Schmidt, 1998.